亲代照顾和交配体系parentalcareandmatingsystems(编辑修改稿)

亲代照顾和交配体系parentalcareandmatingsystems(编辑修改稿)内容摘要：

utside the mother’s body  Male birds are as capable as their mates at providing care  Incubation, feeding, and guarding are divided equally  Two parents are better than one Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 29 Male care in fishes and amphibians  Can be maleonly care or with female care (biparental care)  In fishes and amphibians: usually a form of solitary male care  These animals rarely feed their offspring  Parental duties consist of guarding  Performed as well by one parent as by two Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 30 Biparental care in fishes and amphibians  Biparental care in fish: for survival and growth of offspring  Evolved in ciclids (棘鰭類熱帶淡水魚 ) because their broods face intense predation pressure • Biparental care in discus: the brood attach themselves to both parents and feed off parental skin Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 31 Mode of fertilization affects patterns of parental care  Reflect basic biological differences: where the young develop and how they are fed  Reflect ecological conditions (. intensity of predation)  Teleost fishes, frogs and toads display four categories of parental care in vertebrates:  No care  Maleonly care  Femaleonly care  Biparental care Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 32  Patterns of parental care exhibited by some groups of vertebrates. Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 33  Diagram showing the major independent evolutionary transitions among modes of parental care in rayfinned fishes (輻鰭魚綱 ) . Size of arrows reflects the relative numbers of evolutionary transitions, and numbers next to arrows indicate the range of evolutionary transitions estimated. Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 34 Fertilization and parental care  The association between mode of fertilization and mode of parental care relates to the proximity of adults and offspring  External fertilization in a territory defended by a male  Is associated with male parental care  With internal fertilization  The female carries the embryos  And is in the best position to care for the young Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 35 Sex roles Greater female investment in parental care  In many animals, females provide more parental investment than males  Thought to explain sex differences in mating petition  The sex with greater parental investment (females) bees a limiting resource, and  An object of petition among individuals of the sex investing less (males)  Because of greater female investment, females select mates  Males pete for access to females  This favors large body size and aggressiveness Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 36 Sex role reversal  The burden of parental care falls on the male  When parental investment by males is greater  Males are choosy  Females are petitive  Sex role reversal occurs in insects, birds, crustaceans, fishes, amphibians  Overall, sex role reversed species are in the minority Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 37 Sex role reversal in northern jacanas  A polyandrous mating system: a female pairs with several males  Females defend a territory overlapping several male territories  She plays a dominant role in courtship  Females are much larger than males  Females back up males in confronting potential predators  She’s more effective than the male at predator deterrence Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 38 African jacana Males: build nests, incubate eggs, and care for and defend chicks. Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 39 Brood parasitism  Intraspecific brood parasites: lay eggs in conspecific’s nests  Cliff swallows, redfronted coots (大鷭 ) , wood ducks  She may or may not lay eggs in her own nest  Interspecific (obligate) brood parasites: lay their eggs in other species’ nests  They have no other reproductive option  They never build nests  Honeyguides(響蜜鴷 ), Old World cuckoos(杜鵑 ), New World cuckoos, viduine finches, cowbirds, blackheaded ducks Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 40  blackheaded ducks  Cliff Swallow  redfronted coots  wood ducks Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 41  Cowbird  Cuckoo Finch  黃嘴美洲 杜鵑  Honeyguides (響蜜鴷 ) Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 42 Raising young brood parasites  Host parents experience reduced reproductive success  Damage is directly inflicted by a parasitic adult or its offspring  A female cuckoo may eat or throw out the host’s egg  Or kill the young of the host  Nestling cuckoos (杜鵑 ) evict (逐出 ) eggs or young from the nest of their foster parents  Nestling honeyguides(響蜜鴷 ) kill young with whom they share the nest Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 43 Brood parasites monopolize parental care  They mature more rapidly than a host’s young  Their huge mouths and persistent begging elicit preferential feeding  The host’s young may die from starvation, crowding, or trampling  Parasitic young may benefit by keeping a few of the host’s young around  Host parents increase the rate at which they feed larger broods  Host parents may desert single chick broods Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 44 Host species try to avoid being parasitized  Host species conceal and defend their nests  Identify and remove the eggs (or young) of parasites  Brood parasites try to deceive hosts  Cuckoos lay eggs in the late afternoon when hosts are less attentive  Parasitic eggs or young resemble those of the host species Common cuckoo egg Great reed warbler egg Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 45 Whydah (寡婦鳥 ) Waxbills (織布鳥 ) Parasitic whydah(寡婦鳥 ) Waxbill Ayo 教材 (動物行為學 2020) 46 Mating Systems  The ultimate goal of reproduction for both sexes is to maximize fitness (the relative number of offspring that survive and reproduce)  The reproductive success of males and females is constrained by different factors  A male’s success is limited by access to females  While a female’s is limited b。