营业税改征增值税外文文献及译文

营业税改征增值税外文文献及译文内容摘要：

ion is empirically important for the welfare effects of the different VAT systems. An imperfect extension of the VAT system reduces efficiency in production because intermediates will be taxed differently for different industries. Consumer efficiency is also reduced due to lower VAT on inelastic goods and higher VAT on elastic services. Introducing a general and uniform VAT system is not obviously welfare superior in a distorted economy, but we find that such a system improves welfare pared to the other imperfect regimes. A significant empirical advantage of the general and uniform system, which is revealed by the putations, is also its ability to reduce initial wedges in deliveries to the export and domestic markets. General VAT Computation To see VAT in action, consider Exhibit 1 on p. 612, which provides a simple illustration of how VAT is implemented in the production of bread. A farmer grows and sells wheat to a miller, who grinds the wheat into flour. The miller sells the flour 2 to a baker, who makes the dough and bakes the bread. The bread is then sold to the grocer, who sells the bread to the final consumer. In each stage of bread production, value is added by the seller, and VAT is levied on that amount. To ensure that VAT is levied only on the value added by the producer, VAT uses the creditinvoice mechanism. Thus, on selling the bread to the grocer, the baker collects $30 in VAT and claims an input credit of $15, the VAT paid when the baker purchased flour from the miller. The baker ends up remitting a VAT liability of $15 to the tax authorities. The total revenue created by VAT is the sum of VAT liability collected in each stage of bread production, in this case $50. Although 山东建筑大学毕业论文外文文献及译文 5 VAT is a broadbased general consumption tax (., it applies to all final consumption), there are instances when the application of VAT is avoided. For example, in a pure VAT state, the tax base would theoretically include services rendered by the government, isolated sales of one39。 s personal effects, and sales of personal services。 however, no nation employs a VAT with this tax base for administrative, political, or social reasons (Schenk and Old man at 46). Thus, VAT provides exemptions or applies zero tax rating to certain transactions. Exemption means that the trader does not collect VAT on its sales and does not receive credits for VAT paid on its purchases of inputs. Zero rating means that a trader is liable for an actual rate of VAT, which happens to be zero, and receives credit for input VAT paid. Like transactions, potential taxpayers can be exempt or zero rated. An exempt trader is not part of the VAT system and is instead treated as a final purchaser. A zerorated business does not collect VAT on sales but is pensated for any input VAT it pays. However, if the exemption occurs at the last stage of production, there is a corresponding decrease in VAT revenue because there is no shifting and increase of tax burden。 the value added at the final stage simply escapes from VAT. As shown in Exhibit 3, exempting the grocer from VAT means the grocer would not collect VAT and would not be able to claim credit for the tax it paid on its purchase. The exemption at the last stage means that the grocer would bee the final consumer of the bread. As a final consumer, the grocer would pay the VAT as part of the purchase price. No shifting and increase of tax burden would occur because the grocer would not be able to pass on the tax it paid from its input. An exemption occurring at the last stage of production means that the chain of input credits would cease at the stage prior to the last stage. Any value added after the baker39。 s stage would simply escape the VAT, resulting in a decrease in government revenue due to the exemption. Overview of Retail Sales and Use Tax Before considering some of the similarities and differences between VAT and the retail sales tax (RST), this column next considers a typical retail sales tax system. The retail sales and use tax imposed by . states is generally levied on all retail sales of tangible personal property that are not explicitly exempted. For services, only those explicitly enumerated are taxable (Warren, Gorham and Lamont 1998)). The tax is generally stated on the sales receipt and is collected from the consumer at the point of sale. The retailer is responsible for remitting the tax collected to the 山东建筑大学毕业论文外文文献及译文 6 tax authorities. In 3 theory, retail sales tax is a singlestage tax imposed on the ultimate consumer, which means that the tax should apply only to final sales for personal use and consumption. Accordingly, intermediate transactions in the economic process are excluded from the scope of the sales tax. Using the same bread production example above, sal。